Tag: conflict

Corruption, Impunity, and Conflict: Insights on How Corruption Triggers War

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On August 21, 2026

In Impunity and Corruption, Blogging, Opinion

Articles in this series

This is the third article is a part of a series on how impunity breeds corruption. The series will begin with Nepal, look at corruption at global level, examine why organizations like FATF are ineffective.

Modern statecraft is based on the social contract, an implicit agreement where citizens surrender certain liberties to the state in exchange for security, equitable governance, and the rule of law. However, systemic corruption and culture of impunity dismantle the contract. The state ceases to be a protector and transforms into a predator, using its power to exploit the very people it was mandated to serve and protect.

Historically, the international community viewed corruption as a secondary symptom of war that flourished in the vacuum left by fighting. Modern analysis demands a paradigm shift: Corruption and impunity are the fundamental root causes of conflict and war.1 By delegitimizing the state and closing off peaceful paths for redress, grand corruption acts as the primary catalyst for political violence and state collapse.

Why Corruption transforms into Violence

While corruption is always corrosive, its impact on peace follows a specific trajectory. Statistical modelling based on the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) reveals that states with strong democratic institutions can often absorb marginal increases in corruption with little immediate effect on overall peacefulness. However, once a specific threshold is breached, the state collapses.2

This “tipping point” occurs when corruption penetrates the police and the judiciary. Once these institutions are captured, the state loses its monopoly on the legitimate use of force and its capacity for impartial dispute resolution. At this stage, even small subsequent increase in corruption result in dramatic, exponential increase in violence.2

When the judiciary falls, the rule of law is effectively dead.2 Citizens no longer see the courts as a path to justice, but as a weapon used by elites to protect their own interests. This reality forces marginalized populations to seek “vigilante justice” and “armed community defence groups” to ensure their own security and resource distribution. This institutional void is precisely where insurgencies and violent extremism take root.

Relation between corruption and war

How Embezzlement Kills Before the First Shot is Fired

Grand corruption should be understood as “structural violence”. (See: The Architecture of Global Impunity: 5 Reasons the World’s Biggest Thieves). It is a form of harm that occurs long before the first shot of an armed conflict is fired. When high-level officials divert public funds into foreign havens, they are not only stealing the money but are also depriving the population of healthcare, education, and infrastructure.3

Such a systemic theft creates the desperate conditions that make rebellion a rational choice for the marginalized.2 By widening inequalities and starving specific regions of resources, kleptocrats manufacture the grievances that non-state actors can weaponize.

The national Truth and Reconciliation Commission in Liberia explicitly found that endemic corruption, which limited access to education, justice, and economic opportunities was the root cause of the Liberian civil war.4 Similarly, corruption was recognized as a fundamental trigger for the Arab Spring-related in Tunisia.4

State Capture

There is a critical distinction between “petty bribery” and “state capture”. Whereas petty bribery is an administrative nuisance, state capture is an existential threat to national security. In a captured state, powerful “gilded criminals” undemocratically shape the nation’s legal institutions and policies to illicitly enrich themselves with absolute impunity.

This architecture of impunity is rarely a domestic effort alone. It is sustained by a transnational network of enablers, including bankers, lawyers, and real estate agents, who facilitate the cross-border money laundering.5 Such a system also facilitates environment crimes and illicit trades like illegal drugs and wildlife trade. On top of that, these corrupt networks provide continuous funds to armed combatants and insurgent groups, ensuring that civil wars remain profitable for those at the top. In this environment, law is no longer a tool for justice; it is a shield used by the lawless to maintain power.

State capture is also achieved through election frauds and patronage networks. Vote-buying, nepotism, chumocracy, and monopolization of public offices create an unfair ground in favour of persons or parties who can spend as much money as they can. The result is damage in political inclusivity, disenfranchisement of the minority and lower class, and justification for anti-state violence.

Typology of Institutional CorruptionMechanism of State DelegitimizationImpact on Conflict Dynamics and Peacefulness
Judicial CaptureElites weaponize courts against opponents; ordinary citizens are denied fair trials and equitable dispute resolution.Eliminates non-violent avenues for redress, forcing marginalized groups toward armed rebellion and organized insurgencies.
Police CorruptionLaw enforcement acts with impunity, engages in extortion, or ignores crime unless bribed by criminal syndicates.Erodes baseline physical security; fosters vigilante justice, armed community defense groups, and the rise of violent extremism.
Executive EmbezzlementMassive diversion of public resources into foreign jurisdictions and offshore accounts via transnational enablers.Triggers severe economic marginalization, drastically underfunds public services, and widens horizontal inequalities.
Electoral Fraud & PatronageSubversion of the democratic process through vote-buying, nepotism, and the monopolization of public offices.Destroys political inclusivity, disenfranchising minority or lower-caste groups and providing ideological justification for anti-state violence.

Lessons from Nepal: Why “Peace Agreements” Don’t Diffuse Conflict

The history of Nepal provides a warning: Changing leaders does not bring peace if the underlying “rules of game” remain corrupt. In 1996, the Maoist conflict began with the Maoists presenting a 40-point list of demands to address social discrimination, rampant corruption, and elite impunity.6 The government, however, shut the door to peaceful resolution. The resulting Civil War claimed lives of over 13000 to 17000. Thousands remain injured, disappeared, and displaced from their homes.

While the 2006 peace agreement ended the formal fighting, it failed to dismantle the culture of impunity. The process of “ideological dilution” integrated the former revolutionaries into the government, where they adopted the same kleptocratic tendencies they once fought.6 They formed pact with former enemies to protect one another from prosecution for war crimes, proving that they had become new elites. The result was that many criminals were protected as “revolutionaries” and atrocities pardoned.7

The unresolved impunity increased corruption because politicians and bureaucrats and felt sure no matter what they do, they would remain unpunished. It directly led to the September 8-9 uprising (See: Nepal’s Gen Z is protesting corruption in the aftermath of ridiculous social media ban). Youth protesters took to the streets wearing school uniforms to symbolize their “stolen futures”. The conflict and violence thus ensued took lives of more than 70 (45 listed as martyrs) and government properties worth billions burned.8

Two governments–one interim and another elected–have already served for almost a year. But the demands of accountability and punishment against the corrupt in the protests have been muffled. No substantial punitive action has been seen against anyone involved in the murder of youths and arson of government offices. Ironically, those accused of violence and arson on seemingly opposite sides took part in parliamentary elections. Some of them won. Impunity is rooted as strongly as ever.

Conclusion

The 2025/2026 crisis in Nepal serves as a definitive warning that institutional integrity is a prerequisite for peace. When elites are allowed to loot their nations with impunity, they push their societies toward a tipping point where violence becomes inevitable. Common people, however, are at the receiving ends of violence from both the state-controlling elites as well as the insurgents. Without definitive punishment against their crimes, the individuals, the nation, and eventually, the entire world keep suffering.

True conflict prevention requires the international community to look beyond traditional diplomacy and address the financial rot at the heart of state fragility. We must confront a fundamental contradiction in modern politics: Should “national sovereignty” continue to serve as a legal shield for leaders who systematically loot their own nations and drive their people toward war?

Corruption and Armed Conflicts:

  1. Some Stirring Around in the Governance Soup, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23755473_Corruption_and_Armed_Conflicts_Some_Stirring_Around_in_the_Governance_Soup
  2. LOWERING CORRUPTION – Institute for Economics & Peace, https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Peace-and-Corruption.pdf
  3. Statement submitted by Transparency International, a non-governmental organization in consultative status with the Economic and – UNODC, https://www.unodc.org/documents/treaties/UNCAC/COSP/session10/NGO/CAC-COSP-2023-NGO48.pdf
  4. Module 11 Corruption, Peace and Security – GRACE Initiative – UNODC, https://grace.unodc.org/grace/uploads/documents/academics/Anti-Corruption_Module_11_Corruption_Peace_and_Security.PDF
  5. Tax Havens: Crucibles of financial turmoil and grand corruption, https://www.taxjustice.net/cms/upload/pdf/Hammamet_-_Crucibles_of_Financial_Turmoil_-_JUL-2009-2.pdf
  6. The Political Economy of Civil War in Nepal, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222602808_The_Political_Economy_of_Civil_War_in_Nepal
  7. Authority without accountability: The struggle for justice in Nepal – International Commission of Jurists, https://www.icj.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/ICJ-AUTHORITY-WITHOUT-ACCOUNTABILITY-final-1.pdf
  8. Nepal’s Broil for a New System Change, https://news.slvlog.net/nepals-broil-for-a-new-system-change/

INTERPLAY BETWEEN PROGRESS AND TRADITION IN SOCIETY

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On February 6, 2025

In essay, Blogging

In the evolution of societies, the interplay between progress and tradition is a recurring theme. Choices between innovation and cultural preservation mire communities and are often in conflict with shifting identities, values, and aspirations. This tension not only influences policy-making and economic growth but also deeply affects the lives of individuals and the cohesion of communities.

Progress represents the desire for a better future. It is alluring in the sense that it promises to end traditional fears of poverty and economic stagnation. It also promotes innovation, bringing shifts from traditional practices to newer ones. Progressive ideas move societies to a newer path than tradition can offer.

Tradition, however, is a representation of old values and customs transferred from one generation to another. It is the collection of morals, ethics, and lifestyles that have continued for thousands of years. Tradition is the mirror through which culture can be viewed. When there is something new going on but there is also a desire to keep sticking to old traditions, there arises conflict. Such a conflict may arise at an individual level, for instance, trying to move from one technology to the next; in families, for example, trying to shift from traditional joint to nuclear; and also in societies, striving to adopt new philosophies that challenge the old established themes.

In Nepal, for instance, there have been conflicts in preserving tradition while also moving forward using technology. Urbanisation has brought tensions among the people as they want services they get in cities, but they also carry the nostalgia of village lives. Rapid technological change has benefitted the rich and the powerful, creating gaps between them and the marginalised communities. Where traditional thoughts have benefitted the elites, they have chosen to stagnate society and refuse technological advancements. The desire for the new generation to adopt new technology but the older generations’ refusal to do so is one of the causes of conflict.

Maintaining a balance between tradition and progress, thus, is an enormous challenge to policymakers. They have to keep traditionalists happy while also moving forward to better policies and innovations. Since societies deeply rooted in traditions are often stagnant, it is necessary to identify the major drives to carry them forward. For instance, the preservation of cultures of Newa tradition through the use of technology such as photos, videos, and digitalisation has not only supported tradition but also adopted technological progress. Therefore, policymakers should be able to identify the unique desires of the people following the traditions while supporting innovation.

Societies have incorporated both tradition and progress since they both represent our willingness to preserve ancient teachings, philosophies, and cultures while shaping the path for future generations. Although it could be difficult to strike a perfect balance between tradition and progress, bringing them together through dialogues, innovative policies, and practices yields a better society.

Conflict Management for Positive Transformation: Examples From Literature and History

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On February 2, 2025

In Blogging, Evolution, Humans and Humanity, Musings, Philosophical

Conflict, whether external or internal, is a driving force for transformation. It brings out the truths and vulnerabilities of individuals, communities, and societies. When these vulnerabilities are managed, conflict results in positive change. The role of conflict in transformation is a permanent theme in literature, a recurring example in history, and a profound truth for an individual.

Conflict and Transformation in Literature

Conflict brings out the best as well as the worst in an individual. This can be seen clearly in Fyodor Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment. Raskolnikov, in the early chapters of the novel, possesses a view that “extraordinary men” can transcend morality and commit crimes. His poor financial situation leads him to think that killing the pawnbroker, who was probably cheating him, would be for the “greater good”. After he commits the crime, however, he is consumed by guilt, fear, and paranoia. He can come out of it once he realises through Sonia’s love that his past philosophy was flawed, and he prepares for a more peaceful life.

The idea of “extraordinary man” bringing a great conflict is also explored in Frank Herbert’s Dune series. When the Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV sends the Atreides, the rulers of Caladan, to the desert planet Arrakis (aka Dune), replacing the Harkonnens, the conflict between them reaches a tipping point. The conflict escalates when Paul Atreides, fuelled by his desire for revenge against the family rivals, Harkonnens and the Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV, exploits the myths of Lisan Al-Gaib and frees the Fremen from slavery. However, the savoir complex in him leads to a Jihad that kills over 61 million humans. He also justifies this catastrophe as a necessary action to end people’s admiration for messianic figures and hero worship. The chronicles clearly show how conflicts unmanaged through generations can result in huge losses. It also shows how the resolution of conflict brings out the best in humanity as they set to explore the universe on their own, discarding the need for a messiah.

Perhaps the best depiction of unmanaged family conflict leading into global warfare is the battle of the Mahabharata. The five sons of Pandu (Pandavas) and the hundred sons of Dhritarashtra (Kauravas) face each other in this family feud along with their allies from around the globe. The origin of the conflict has a root, however, when Devbrata (Bhishma) takes vows to refuse the throne and remain celibate to please his father, Shantanu, and his stepmother, Satyavati. This act robs Hastinapur of its strong ruler and the true male heir.

When his half-brothers, Chitrangad and Vichitravirya, die early, the male lineage of the Kuru dynasty genetically. However, through niyoga, Dhritarashtra and Pandu are born. Although Dhritarashtra is the eldest, he is denied the throne because of his blindness. Pandu becomes a king, despite his weak, sickly body. However, he soon leaves the palace after being cursed by a sage to die if he engages in a sexual act. Despite his restraints, Pandu succumbs to his desires and dies. He is not without heirs, though. Through a mantra, his wives Kunti and Madri have given birth to five divine sons. In Hastinapur, Dhritarashtra is crowned as the king. He promises his eldest son, Duryodhan, to pass on the throne and starts preparing accordingly.

Dhritarashtra’s repressed desires for power manifest into bitterness when Kunti returns with her sons. The fact that her eldest, Yudhisthir, is older than Duryodhan means that Yudhisthir was a challenger for the throne. The Kauravas become bitter, and although everyone knows of this, nobody takes action to bring the Pandavas and Kauravas to negotiations and solve the conflict. The brewing tensions escalate after the Draupadi, the common wife of the Pandavas, is brought to the court and disrobed. This episode makes the war inevitable and peace impossible.

The aftermath of the war shows the victors, Pandavas, distressed and sort of lost. They try, however, to sustain their kingdom as much as possible, setting the foundation for the next generation to come.

Conflict and Transformation in History

Examples of leadership arising from conflict are also evident from history. Mohan Das Karam Chand Gandhi’s experiences in South Africa changed his attitude towards the British, and he became one of the major freedom fighters for independent India. Similarly, apartheid in Africa gave rise to Nelson Mandela, and racial discrimination brought about leadership qualities in Rosa Park, Martin Luther King Jr., and Malcolm X.

In Nepal, too, the decade-long armed conflict between the Mablets and the government brought into light the discrimination of upper caste over lower caste, cultural suppression, and lack of opportunities for the backward communities. The Comprehensive Peace Accord 2006, the Constitution of Nepal 2015, and many other agreements have addressed the marginalisation and put forth mechanisms to solve the issues.

Conflict at an individual level


At an individual level, conflict can help one identify their truths and vulnerabilities. Conflicts can arise when a person has set up certain ideals and wants to follow them. When reality shatters their ideals, they feel weak and can’t accept reality. However, acceptance of reality and confrontation of harsh truths make one stronger. This also gives them a way forward in life.

I too have faced several problems where I feel like I am at a crossroads. When I left my job for preparation of PSC exams, I had no idea where I would go. However, it also made me ambitious and target-orientated. The strong sense of. “I must do it” helped me crack an exam at one level.

Conclusion

The role of conflict in transformation is, thus, a universal phenomenon. However, we should also be careful, for conflict can not only be transformative but also destructive. Sometimes, oversight can make us believe that conflict has no negative effect, but it can turn out to be so. When left unmitigated, conflict destroys individuals, splits families, weakens societies, and collapses countries. Therefore, it is wise to handle conflict as a double-edged sword and work out ways to bring transformation rather than destruction. Literature, history, and individual experiences have revealed that struggle is the source of transformation. Conflict forces individuals and societies to confront their limitations, reimagine possibilities, and evolve. Whether through the internal torment of a character like Raskolnikov, the sociopolitical struggles of the Maoist movement, or individual experiences, conflict is the engine of transformation, propelling humans toward growth and renewal.

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